phenacoccus manihoti nature of damage

14 Boll worms Cotton They eat up succulent boll. Entomol. Data are exclusively shown for provinces and time-periods in which cassava area expansion was recorded. Small nymphs, called crawlers, are light yellow and free of wax. Barratt, B. I. P., Moran, V. C., Bigler, F. & van Lenteren, J. C. The status of biological control and recommendations for improving uptake for the future. Other Mammalian PestsThese include monkey, deer, antelopes and bush pig. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles Ecol. ... From an ecological perspective all organisms are part of nature, irrespective of what they do. Andrews, K. L., Bentley, J. W. & Cave, R. D. Enhancing biological control’s contributions to integrated pest management through appropriate levels of farmer participation. Biological Control: Ecology and Applications. don’t forget to use the comment box and leave a message or suggestion and we will get back to you within seconds. PubMed Google Scholar. in Encyclopedia of biodiversity 2nd edn (ed. Amnemus weevil (Amnemus sp.) 28, 531–540 (2013). Earwig, Black field (Nala lividipes) Etiella moth (Etiella behrii) False wireworm (Pterohelaeus and Gonocephalum spp.) 33. Environ. Policy: Sustainable development goals for people and planet. Common grass blue butterfly (Zizina labradus) 52. Cowpea They cause damage to the tender parts of the plants, by eating up the flower buds and pods. It is grown in small-scale diversified systems by smallholders as well as in large plantations operated by agro-industry. Symptoms and nature of damage observed on E. stricta were similar to those described earlier. Bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) 24. Locust, Yellow-winged (Gastrimargus musicus) Locust, Spur-throated (Austracris (Noamdacris) guttulosa) Loopers (various) Looper, Bean or Mocis (Mocis alterna) Looper, Brown pasture (Ciampa arietaria) Looper, Castor oil (Achaea janata) Eastern false wireworm (Pterohelaeus spp.) Entomol. Equally spectacular results have been obtained for biological control of weeds as exemplified by the control of Klamath weed by the Kla-math beetle, Chrysolina quadrigemina, in California. More specifically, we queried the database for bilateral trade records of three cassava-derived commodities and associated Harmonized System (HS) codes: “Cassava whether or not sliced—as pellets, fresh or dried” (71410), “Tapioca & substitutes prepared from starch” (1903), and “Cassava starch” (110814). Reg. Terra-i outputs have been validated through comparison with the Global Forest Change data and the PRODES system in Brazil. Our surveys, conducted across mainland Southeast Asia between 2014 and 2017 (i.e., 6–9 years and 5–8 years following the initial P. manihoti detection and A. lopezi introduction, respectively), showed that P. manihoti was present in 37.0% of the fields (n = 549) and comprised 20.8% abundance within a speciose mealybug complex18 (Fig. Upon its arrival in Asia, it spread to its ecological limits (though confined by cassava cropping area)16, leading to an average 4.1 ton ha−1 reduction in crop yield in Thailand (from 22.7 to 18.6 ton ha−1), a 27% drop in the nation’s aggregate cassava production and an ensuing 162% increase in starch price15. Bean leafroller (Omiodes diemenalis) 25. pastoral, ranching and mixed farming, List of 100 ectoparasites and types of ectoparasites, forage and pasture management, lists of forages, WHAT IS CULTURAL PRACTICES IN CROP PRODUCTION, modern methods in the application of herbicide andprecautions to be taken when using herbicides, methods of handling herbicide. The infestation scale ranks field-level P. manihoti attacks from low (1) to severe (4). The mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti, is a leading pest of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), damaging this crop globally. Exploration for mealybug natural enemies by the Africa-wide Biological Control Project in latin America (thick lines represent the exploration route). Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera: Pseudococci-dae) was first detected in Thailand’s cassava crop. Growing point and stem may be eaten too. All these leads to weakening and eventual death of the plants affected. In addition to these, they also have two jaws (maxillae). Scare Crow for birds and mammalian pest in farms. what is pest? Exochomus flaviventris Mader is considered to be the most active predator of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti Matile–Ferrero in Central Africa. Use of scare crows 2. Upon its arrival in Asia, it spread to its ecological limits (though confined by cassava cropping area)16, leading to an average 4.1tonha−1 reduction in … U.S.A. 107, 19639 (2010). Province-level deforestation and cassava area growth over particular time-periods are visualized for Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Vietnam, with bubble size depicting cassava area growth (ha) over that period and coloring reflecting level of forest loss (with increasing levels of forest loss indicated by colors ranging from green to red). Also, in order to gauge the inherent capacity of cropping systems to absorb (or recover from) disturbances such as the P. manihoti attack, indices can be adopted that reflect ‘‘ecosystem resilience.’’ Through use of those indices, agro-industry can simultaneously contribute to agricultural sustainability and biodiversity conservation31,32, while such ‘‘resilience’’ indices could be employed by different actors to further encourage good practice. A sporadic pest in New Zealand’s warmer areas on fruit and vegetables. Cassava, Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae), is a globally important source of starch, a food staple for vulnerable rural populations in several Asian countries, and a base for the production of food products, animal feed, ethanol, and household items15. Philos. In Thailand, cassava cropping area reached 1.3 million ha in 2009, and subsequently fell to 1.2 million (2010) and 1.1 million ha (2011). ESTABLISHMENT OF PASTURES57. Biological control of an agricultural pest protects tropical forests. CAS  Black sunflower scarab (Pseudoheteronyx sp.) ORGANIC MANURING5. This manuscript uses original datasets that resulted from collaborative research, with trials jointly conceptualized, defined, and executed by national program staff and international cooperators. Shooting with catapult or gun. Heimpel, G. E. & Cock, M. J. W. Shifting paradigms in the history of classical biological control. Classify insect pests into feeding groups Name important field and storage pest of crops Identify nature of damage to cropsState preventive and control measures State other important pests of crops Identify the nature of their damage to crops State the preventive and control measures, 1. They do a lot of damage to crops in the farm by uprooting eating them up. When used with established safeguards13, biological control can resolve or reduce the problems caused by invasive species11 and helps ensure crop protection benefits not only farmers’ pocket39, but also the environment. For example, in mid- to large-scale plantations parasitism rates ranged from 10.7 ± 10.6% (n = 20; Dong Nai, Vietnam) to 67.1 ± 20.8% (n = 22) in late dry season in Tay Ninh (Vietnam). For example, monkey eat up plantains, banana maize and cocoa pods. Invasions 18, 953–969 (2016). and JavaScript. Information about Phenacoccus manihoti diagnosis, including distribution and treatment advice. Surveys were conducted January–May 2014 (dry season), October–November 2014 (late rainy season) and January–March 2015 (dry season). DIAGRAM Figure 2.8.1a: Cricket DIAGRAM Figure 2.8.1B: Beetle DIAGRAM Figure 2.8.1c: Grasshopper DIAGRAM Figure 2.8.Id: Caterpillar. P. manihoti was finally discovered in 1981 in Paraguay by the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). The most obvious damage is caused by the sucking habits of these insects. performed trials and collected the data; K.A.G.W., A.C.H. For Vietnam specifically, province-level forest loss was positively related to the extent of (harvested) cassava area growth during 2011–2012 (F1,24 = 7.113, p = 0.013) and 2012–2013 (F1,20 = 4.603, p = 0.044), but not during 2009–2010 (F1,27 = 0.295, p = 0.591) or 2010–2011 (F1,40 = 2.863, p = 0.098). An example is the weaving insect which causes the folding of the leaves of crops particularly vegetables. Abstract. Conserv. 5), with potential impacts on biodiversity, human health22 and ecosystem functioning23,24, including interference with P. manihoti biological control (Wyckhuys et al., unpublished). Global coverage of agricultural sustainability standards, and their role in conserving biodiversity. 1. (MacMillan Press, London, 1991). By concurrently highlighting the harmful and beneficial impacts of P. manihoti and A. lopezi, respectively, our work shows how biological control constitutes a practical ‘‘win-win’’ solution that tackles invasive species mitigation, biodiversity conservation and profitable farming. Exotic biological control agents: A solution or contribution to arthropod invasions? Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero, The value of the upper optimal soil moisture threshold SM2 was left unchanged at 0. Freshwat. Nat. Country-level deforestation statistics over a 10-year time period were extracted from this platform for Lao PDR, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Cambodia, and data were compiled on a province-level for each year from 2005 to 2013. Monitoring on the occurrence and damage potential of CMB on cassava was undertaken during 2020. Furthermore, the average recall value for detection of events with an area of 90% to 100% of a MODIS pixel is of 0.9 ± 0.05, which shows that Terra-i detects the large-size events. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION2. K. A. G. Wyckhuys. Our study illustrates how an invasive pest can lead to substantial loss of forest46 and thereby accelerate species loss (including of endemic natural enemies) and extinctions25,47, and how scientifically guided biological control can offer an environmentally benign tool to resolve those impacts11. More specifically, Terra-i adopts computational neural networks to detect how vegetation vigor behaves at a given site over a period of time in relation to observed rainfall, and thus identifies certain anomalies while accounting for the effects of drought, flooding and cloud cover or other image ‘‘noise.’’ Changes in vegetation greenness at the landscape level are recorded on the Terra-i platform on a biweekly basis. To assess structural changes in the inter-country trade of cassava-derived commodities, we extracted data from the United Nations Comtrade database (https://comtrade.un.org/). Wyckhuys, K.A.G., Hughes, A.C., Buamas, C. et al. Sci. Ehrenfeld, J. G. Ecosystem consequences of biological invasions. Ants, Seed harvesting (Pheidole) Aphids (various) Aphid, Soybean (Aphis glycine) Aphid, Spotted alfalfa (Therioaphis trifolii) Aphid, Turnip (Lipaphis erysimi) Aphid, Wheat (Rhopalosiphum padi) Armyworms (various) Armyworm, Common (Leucania convecta) Armyworm, Dayfeeding (Spodoptera exempta) Armyworm, Lawn (Spodoptera mauritia) Armyworm, Lesser (Spodoptera exigua) Armyworm, Northern (Mythimna separata) Armyworm, Sugarcane (Leucania stenographa) Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) Bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) Bean leafroller (Omiodes diemenalis) Bean looper or Mocis (Mocis alterna) Bean podborer (Maruca vitrata) Bean spider mite (Tetranychus ludeni) Beet webworm (Spoladea recurvalis) Black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus, T. oceanicus, Lepidogryllus parvulus) Black field earwig (Nala lividipes) Black leaf beetle (Rhyparida nitida) Black sunflower scarab (Pseudoheteronyx sp.) Photograph Anagyrus lopezi (credit G. Goergen, IITA). Country-specific effects of neonicotinoid pesticides on honey bees and wild bees. Black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus, T. oceanicus, Lepidogryllus parvulus) 30. mealybug (CMB), Phenacoccus manihoti on cassava. Both variables are log-transformed, and only certain regression lines in b reflect statistically significant patterns (ANOVA, p < 0.05; see text for further statistics). Google Scholar. This area is 1 and 2). BirdThese attack mainly grain crops such as maize, rice, sorghum and barley. Brown wheat mite (Petrobia latens) 42. One response was the 2009 introduction of the host-specific parasitoid wasp Anagyrus lopezi De Santis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae; originally native to South America) from Benin (West Africa), where it had suppressed P. manihoti throughout Africa following its introduction in 198117. Several sap-sucking insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) of neotropical origin have been accidentally introduced to Southeast Asia and West Africa in recent years, including the mealybugs Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel & … These piercing and sucking habits of the insects lead to] destruction of plant tissues, development of holes through which disease organisms can enter into the plant system and transfer or harmful germs from diseased plants to healthy ones. Maxwell, S. L., Fuller, R. A., Brooks, T. & Watson, J. Although some cases have justifiably blemished the reputation of arthropod biological control, current practices, and safeguards minimize such risks13,40. A widespread, global pest of cultivated crops. Sartiami D(1), Watson GW(2), M N MR(3), Hanifah Y M(4), A B I(5). The small size and cryptic nature of scale insects means that they can easily escape detection ... Phenacoccus manihoti, was accidentally introduced to West Africa Both these insects cause severe damage to cassava in Africa and South America, respectively. Although the biological control of this mealybug using natural predators has been established, resistance breeding remains an important means of control. types of Endoparasites human and animals. Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses. 3, 1998 Recognition Behavior of the Cassava Mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) at the Leaf Surface of Different Host Plants Sophie Renard,1,5 Paul-Andre Calatayud,2 Jean-Sebastien Pierre,3 and Bruno Le Ru4 Accepted November 15, 1997; revised December 17, 1997 The testing behavior and test … Watson, J. E. et al. for the purpose of this subject, here is a few lists of pests of crops,African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) Amnemus weevil (Amnemus sp.) Trends Ecol. DISEASES3. : They cut down and eat various parts of the crop especially cereal and tuber crops. & Koh, L. P. Navjot’s nightmare revisited: logging, agriculture, and biodiversity in Southeast Asia. Its accidental introduction damaged a staple crop that is particularly ... has been put at $2 billion a year, until both were brought under control using natural enemies. They have two lips – flat upper lip (larum) and lower lip (labium) while the maxillae are used to push the crop parts into the mouth, the mandibles are used for the biting and chewing since they are very strong. J. Appl. & Edwards, D. P. A double-edged sword for tropical forests. Our study also helps put such risks into perspective, as the rapid A. lopezi introduction and field-level release proved essential to alleviate the disruptive impacts of P. manihoti attack35,41. Proc. Hansen, M. C. et al. The team examined the impacts of Phenacoccus manihoti, a type of mealybug that attacks cassava plants, on Southeast Asia’s crop production of the root vegetable. analyzed the data; K.A.G.W., A.C.H., C.B., A.C.J., L.V., L.R., J.-P.D., and D.S. Near real-time deforestation patterns relate to the annual increase in (harvested) cassava area over a 2006–2016 time period. Piercing and Sucking Insect what is pestThe mouth parts of these insects are shaped like injection needles and are thus adapted to piercing (that is penetrating into the plant part) and sucking (that is removing plant fluid). (a) Nature of Damage: They cut down and eat various parts of the crop especially cereal and tuber crops. Other drivers of importance might have been crops such as maize, rubber, or pulp/paper crop establishment. PeerJ 6, e5796 (2018). Lett. Evol. Economic value of biological control in integrated pest management of managed plant systems. Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora). They also attack fruits in the field. Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. PLoS ONE 12, e0173265 (2017). Examples of these birds are Weaver birds(Quela), parrots, etc. 3, 178 (2010). Science 342, 850–853 (2013). In 2009, Thailand imported 1126 tonnes of cassava products from Lao PDR and 322,889 tonnes from Cambodia, and Vietnam’s exports equaled 2.09 million tonnes. Twenty-nine variables associated with plant growth, agronomic and environmental … Third, we contrast forest loss and cassava expansion over the above period (section—country-specific trends in forest loss vs. cassava area growth). Since the late 1800s, more than 200 invasive insect pests and over 50 weeds across the globe have been completely or partially suppressed through biological control, often with favorable benefit:cost ratios (ranging from 5:1 to > 1000:1)9,10. Other Mammalian PestsThese include monkey, deer, antelopes and bush pig. Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) 23. Heavy infestations often cause stunting or death of the plant host. In all countries except Lao PDR, cropping area was largest in 2011 (Supplementary Fig. Abstract. Over the ensuing 2009–10 cropping season, province-level yields dropped by 12.6 ± 9.8% (area-weighted mean: −18.2%) and country-wide aggregate yields declined from 22.7 t ha−1 to 18.6 t ha−1 (Fig. Collins, N. M., Sayer, J. While invasive species undermine many of the UN Sustainable Development Goals1,8,51, the benefits of biological control are routinely disregarded13,50. Tayleur, C. et al. 50, 977–987 (2013). Where A. lopezi was present, mealybug abundance was negatively associated with A. lopezi parasitism (ANOVA, F1,84 = 12.615, p = 0.001; Fig. 60, 621–645 (2015). This is similar to observations Heimpel, G. E. & Mills, N. J. Rats eat up stored produce like tubers and grains. (a) Nature of Damage: They peck out planted seeds, eat up grains on the field and destroy leaves of some plants such as oil palm. Rodents 8. Koh, L. P. et al. 2. Syst. Furthermore, country-specific patterns of cassava production (harvested area, ha) and yield (t ha−1) were obtained for Vietnam, Myanmar, Lao PDR, and Cambodia via the FAO STAT database (http://www.fao.org/faostat/). Science 346, 38–40 (2014). From 1985 to 1989 five large scale surveys were made to document the spread of the cassava mealybug (CM) Phenacoccus manihoti Matile‐Ferrero (Hom., Pseudococcidae) and the releases and successful establishment of its exotic parasitoid Epidinocarsis lopezi (De Santis) (Hym., Encyrtidae) through most cassava‐growing areas of Malawi. Abstract. what is pestSome common biting and chewing insect pests are beetles, grasshoppers, termites, crickets, caterpillars of moths and butter flies, locust, army worms and so on. These are insects that bore into plant tissues and seeds, examples are stem borers of cereals and weevils such as beans, rice M maize weevils. FARM YARD MANURE, 44. Insect pest are those insects that cause physical damage to crops. Insects belong to the group arthropods.Generally pests reduce crop yield both in quality and quantity. 2). Annual Review of Entomology 36: 257–283. To quantify the extent to which forest loss was related to cassava area expansion, two types of analyses were conducted. SILAGE52. … From 2009 to 2012 regional trade in cassava-based commodities shifted, as Thailand’s import of cassava products (i.e., roots, chips, and pellets) increased by 153% and starch by 1575%, and Vietnam exported larger volumes of those products to China. B: Biol. They also eat ripe fruits such as pawpaw, mango, and cashew. Phenacoccus solenopsis, the cotton mealy bug, has emerged as a serious pest of cotton in India, necessitating basic studies on its development and survival at different temperatures (20, 25, 30 and 35 °C) and relative humidities (RH) (65, 75 and 85 ± 1 %) levels to ascertain optimal population growth. Blue oat mite (Penthaleus major) 35. Ecol. Although an objective appraisal of risks remains essential, an equivalent recognition of the benefits is also warranted. By stabilizing cassava yields and alleviating pressure on land and dependence on synthetic insecticides, biological control supports agricultural intensification, safeguards farm profitability and spares land for conservation4,33. Brown bean bug, Large (Riptortus serripes) 36. Clover springtail (Sminthurus viridis) Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) Cockroach, Wingless (Calolampra spp.) Global threats from invasive alien species in the twenty-first century and national response capacities. Do new access and benefit sharing procedures under the convention on biological diversity threaten the future of biological control? Insect pest are those insects that cause physical damage to crops. In California and Hawaii, the giant whitefly is successfully controlled by To infer the likely impact of cassava area growth on forest loss in different Southeast Asian countries, we obtained data from both a near-real-time vegetation monitoring system, Terra-i (https://www.terra-i.org) and deforestation data from Global Forest Watch52 (https://www.globalforestwatch.org/). Nonetheless, while such land-sparing activities are valuable, these are insufficient to achieve conservation in the long-term without suitable policies, planning, governance arrangements, funding, and implementation30,34. At times, mealybugs have toxins and act as vectors of certain viruses detrimental to plant life. Ten consecutive plants were sampled along each transect, thus yielding a total of 50 plants per site. We studied the temperature and hygrometry as main ecological factors helpful to its development. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-018-0257-6, Risk screening of the potential invasiveness of non-native aquatic species in Vietnam, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) on the “Offensive” in Africa: Prospects for Integrated Management Initiatives, Bioecology of Anagyrus saccharicola (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a parasitoid of the pink sugarcane mealybug Saccharicoccus sacchari (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Unsung heroes: fixing multifaceted sustainability challenges through insect biological control, Microbial technology for the sustainable development of energy and environment. Over a 2006–2016 time period, we recorded the following evolutions in terms of quantity (tonnes): global annual imports of cassava-derived commodities to Thailand (reporting) and China, from ‘‘All’’ trade partner countries. Spraying chemieals such as furadan with aircraft,3. Proc. Cock, M. J. W. et al. Cassava mealy bug (phenacoccus Manihoti 6. Apodous, creamy white larvae develop individually in chambers formed inside the meristematic tissue. First record of cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), in Malaysia. Evol. Cotton seedling thrip (Thrips tabaci) 62. DeFries, R. S., Rudel, T., Uriarte, M. & Hansen, M. Deforestation driven by urban population growth and agricultural trade in the twenty-first century. The literature on the history and biology of the cassava mealybug in Africa Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero is reviewed, and reports on the search for natural enemies of this species in the Neotropics for biological control purposes are summarised. Flea beetles, Brown and Redheaded (Chaetocnema and Nisostra sp.) Demand for cassava is an important driver of land-use pressure and forest loss in the Greater Mekong sub-region, yet it is not the only one, and the A. lopezi introduction alone thus will not avert future deforestation. We thank G. Hyman, J. Newby, and L.K. The UN Sustainable Development Goals of 2030 Agenda aim to end malnutrition and poverty while preventing biodiversity loss1. By 2011, peak deforestation rates in Cambodia, Vietnam, and Myanmar had declined by 31.8–94.9% compared to 2010, while those in Lao PDR lowered by 50.5% in 2012 (Supplementary Fig. Fla. Entomol. Yet, during 2010–2012, our analyses revealed the marked role of cassava area growth in triggering deforestation at a multi-country level. Griggs, D. et al. Spray with an insecticide such as gammalin 20. Rodents These include rats, grass-cutters, African rabbits and hare. : The mealybugs were observed on a daily basis until their life cycle was completed and information on the time of molting and mortality was recorded for each life stages. Zeddies, J., Schaab, R. P., Neuenschwander, P. & Herren, H. R. Economics of biological control of cassava mealybug in Africa. Hare eat up planted grains. Brown shield bug (Dictyotus caenosus) 41. Goulson, D. An overview of the environmental risks posed by neonicotinoid insecticides. a pest can be a bird as long as it is destroying farm produce4. More specifically, mealybug-induced yield shocks contributed to price surges in Thailand15 and coincided with 136–584% inter-annual increases in import flows of cassava products (Supplementary Fig. Modern biological control, centered on a careful selection and subsequent introduction of a specialized natural enemy (obtained from the pest species’ region of origin), can offer an effective solution for invasive species problems11. Given the occasional inconsistencies in country-reported trade volumes or values in either FAO STAT or Comtrade databases, cross-checks were made with databases from the Thai Tapioca Starch Association (TTSA) and corrections were made accordingly. & Whitmore, T. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pacifics. Weed and erosion problems, after plant growth was crippled, sometimes led to total destruction of the crops. 8 Cassava mealy bug (phenacoccus Manihoti) Cassava Affected plants become stunted since the internodes are reduced. Valentin, C. et al. conceived and designed the experiments; K.A.G.W., A.C.H., C.B. Biol. Selection of … Second, we examine regional patterns of cassava cultivation and inter-country trade from 2009 to 2013 (section—country-specific cassava production and trade trends). To contrast local P. manihoti infestation pressure with A. lopezi parasitism rates, we sampled during 2014 and 2015 at a random sub-set of mealybug-invaded sites in different provinces in Thailand (n = 5), Cambodia (n = 10, 15 per province), and southern Vietnam (n = 18, 20, 22). HARVESTING OF YAM48. Change 17, 1303–1313 (2017). Dip cassava cuttings in 0.1% Rogor or ultracide solution for 1 minute before planting, 9 Capsids Cocoa The insects attack young shoots of cocoa and introduce toxic saliva into the plant. Castor oil looper (Achaea janata) 46. Other insects pests which may not fall into the above groups have been found to affect crops. Lond. Boring insect Pests 3. Res. This spurred an expansion of cassava cropping in neighboring countries from 713,000 ha in 2009 to > 1 million ha by 2011: satellite imagery reveals 388%, 330%, 185% and 608% increases in peak deforestation rates in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam focused in cassava crop expansion areas.

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